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Yaghtini M, Jahani M, Feizy J, Hoseini Taheri S E, Estiri H. Physicochemical, Nutritional, and Antioxidant Properties of Two Iranian Lentil Cultivars: A Comparative Study of Cooking and Germination Effects. JNFS 2024; 9 (2) :316-324
URL: http://jnfs.ssu.ac.ir/article-1-664-en.html
URL: http://jnfs.ssu.ac.ir/article-1-664-en.html
Department of Food Chemistry, Research Institute of Food Science and Technology (RIFST), Mashhad, Iran
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Introduction
Where Ablank and Asample are the absorbance of the blank and test solutions, respectively. The sample concentration providing 50% inhibition (IC50) was determined using exponential regression analysis from the curve of inhibition % versus the extract concentration (1000-50000 mg/ml) with a regression equation of Y=25.59 Ln(X)-256.4, R2=0.996.
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Physicochemical, Nutritional, and Antioxidant Properties of Two Iranian Lentil Cultivars: A Comparative Study of Cooking and Germination Effects
Mohammad Yaghtini; MSc 1, Moslem Jahani; PhD*2, Javad Feizy; PhD3, Seyyed Emad Hoseini Taheri; MSc 4 &
Hossein Estiri; MSc 1
Mohammad Yaghtini; MSc 1, Moslem Jahani; PhD*2, Javad Feizy; PhD3, Seyyed Emad Hoseini Taheri; MSc 4 &
Hossein Estiri; MSc 1
1 Department of Food Science and Technology, Islamic Azad University, Sabzevar Branch, Iran; 2 Department of Food Chemistry, Research Institute of Food Science and Technology (RIFST), Mashhad, Iran; 3 Department of Food Quality Control and Safety, Research Institute of Food Science and Technology (RIFST), Mashhad, Iran; 4 Takchin Almas Sahar Company (Hosseini Brothers Nuts), Toos Industrial Zone, Mashhad, Iran.
| ARTICLE INFO | ABSTRACT | |
| ORIGINAL ARTICLE | Background: Lentils are regarded as one of the most significant rainfed legumes in the world. They provide a valuable source of minerals, vitamins, and amino acids. Methods: Proximate composition (moisture, total ash, total fat, protein, fiber, and carbohydrate), mineral content, antioxidant activity (DPPH IC50), as well as total phenolic compounds (TPC) were ascertain in the raw, germinated, and cooked samples of two cultivars of Iranian lentils. Results: Cooking and germination demonstrated a significant effect on TPC, antioxidant activity and minerals. The highest amount of phenolic compounds was detected in raw black lentils, followed by raw green and germinated lentils. The black cultivar exhibited higher proportions of K, Cu, Ca, and Zn and the treatments reduced the concentrations of mineral elements in the investigated samples. Moreover, the losses of the minerals in the cooked samples were higher than in the germinated samples. Conclusions: All three states of black lentils demonstrated higher ash, mineral, total fat, protein, crude fiber, and antioxidant capacity. Cooking and germination induced a significant reduction in the phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity. Considerable reductions were also observed in the minerals content, during cooking and germination. Keywords: Antioxidants; Polyphenols; Fabaceae; Nutritive value |
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| Article history: Received: 28 Jun 2022 Revised: 7 May 2024 Accepted: 12 Oct 2022 |
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| *Corresponding author: m.jahani@RIFST.ac.ir Km. 12, Mashhad- Quchan highway, Mashhad, Iran. Postal code: 91895157356 Tel: +98 51 35425370 |
Introduction
Worldwide food security is currently constrained by severe climate variability, global warming, and the water scarcity. Legumes are explored as sources of carbohydrates, protein, dietary fiber, micronutrients, vitamins, and phenolic compounds. However, the principal consumption of proteins and carbohydrates is supplied by animal products and cereals with much higher water requirements and lower nutritional value than legumes. Individuals are prone to obesity, heart disease, cancer, and diabetes by consuming excessive amounts of meat and cereal-based foods. Furthermore, rice fields and livestock farms are identified as two primary sources to enhance methane greenhouse gas in the world (Rebello et al., 2014).
Various countries encounter nutritional challenges primarily related to insufficient protein intake and its quality. However, the adverse effects of low protein and particular vitamins can be supplied by legumes, as they are regarded as the second dominant source of food after cereals. Additionally, epidemiological investigations revealed that the consumption of legumes is inversely associated with the risk of coronary heart disease, type II diabetes, obesity, lower LDL, and higher HDL cholesterol (Siva et al., 2018).
Legumes can serve as a viable substitute for animal proteins, although they require a cost equivalent to one-fifth of the milk production. In rural areas, legumes have higher crop yields compared to cereals, resulting in two to three times more job opportunities (Bhavya and Prakash, 2021, Xu et al., 2007). Therefore, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) designated 2016 as the global year for legumes.
Lentils (Lens culinaris Medik) rank among the top rainfed legumes globally. They contain a protein content of about 18-32%, and approximately 60% carbohydrate, with soluble and insoluble dietary fiber beneficial to diminish cholesterol, fat, and blood sugar. They are considered as an outstanding source of molybdenum, copper, manganese, iron, zinc, potassium, phosphorus, folate, vitamin B1, and B6 (Duenas et al., 2009). Lentil is composed of several varietal groups with regard to testa color and cotyledon color. Brown lentils are the most common variety and can range in color from khaki brown to dark black and possess a mild, earthy flavour. Green lentils are remarkably identical to brown lentils, with a more robust and slightly peppery flavour and are available in various sizes. Pardina or Spanish brown types contain a brown speckled testa with yellow cotyledons. Red lentils have traditionally been produced and consumed in India and the Middle East. More recently, the USA, Canada, and Australia have become significant producers of red lentils. Black beluga lentils are shiny, tiny, and black and resemble caviar (Stefaniak and McPhee, 2015).
The consumption of lentils with wheat or rice improves the composition of essential amino acids in the human diet as lentils include a high quantity of lysine and tryptophan (Portman et al., 2019). Green lentils (also known as brown, yellow, or macrosperma) are identified by a green to brown seed coated with yellow cotyledons. Furthermore ,red lentils (known as microsperma or Persian) consist of a pale grey to dark grey seed coated with red cotyledons (Kaur et al., 2010).
In addition to valuable nutrients, lentils contain anti-nutritional substances such as trypsin inhibitors and oligosaccharides. The preparation processes can significantly reduce or eliminate the anti-nutritional components but damage their dietary characteristics. For instance, soaking, germination, boiling, as well as cooking improved the availability of proteins, starch, several minerals, and vitamins (Fabbri and Crosby, 2016).
Therefore, the fundamental objective of the current investigation was to evaluate the physicochemical, nutritional, and antioxidant features of two cultivars of Iranian lentils, including green (with green hull and yellow cotyledon) and black (with black hull and red cotyledon) lentils. Additionally, variations in physicochemical characteristics were compared in raw, germinated, and cooked samples.
Materials and Methods
Various countries encounter nutritional challenges primarily related to insufficient protein intake and its quality. However, the adverse effects of low protein and particular vitamins can be supplied by legumes, as they are regarded as the second dominant source of food after cereals. Additionally, epidemiological investigations revealed that the consumption of legumes is inversely associated with the risk of coronary heart disease, type II diabetes, obesity, lower LDL, and higher HDL cholesterol (Siva et al., 2018).
Legumes can serve as a viable substitute for animal proteins, although they require a cost equivalent to one-fifth of the milk production. In rural areas, legumes have higher crop yields compared to cereals, resulting in two to three times more job opportunities (Bhavya and Prakash, 2021, Xu et al., 2007). Therefore, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) designated 2016 as the global year for legumes.
Lentils (Lens culinaris Medik) rank among the top rainfed legumes globally. They contain a protein content of about 18-32%, and approximately 60% carbohydrate, with soluble and insoluble dietary fiber beneficial to diminish cholesterol, fat, and blood sugar. They are considered as an outstanding source of molybdenum, copper, manganese, iron, zinc, potassium, phosphorus, folate, vitamin B1, and B6 (Duenas et al., 2009). Lentil is composed of several varietal groups with regard to testa color and cotyledon color. Brown lentils are the most common variety and can range in color from khaki brown to dark black and possess a mild, earthy flavour. Green lentils are remarkably identical to brown lentils, with a more robust and slightly peppery flavour and are available in various sizes. Pardina or Spanish brown types contain a brown speckled testa with yellow cotyledons. Red lentils have traditionally been produced and consumed in India and the Middle East. More recently, the USA, Canada, and Australia have become significant producers of red lentils. Black beluga lentils are shiny, tiny, and black and resemble caviar (Stefaniak and McPhee, 2015).
The consumption of lentils with wheat or rice improves the composition of essential amino acids in the human diet as lentils include a high quantity of lysine and tryptophan (Portman et al., 2019). Green lentils (also known as brown, yellow, or macrosperma) are identified by a green to brown seed coated with yellow cotyledons. Furthermore ,red lentils (known as microsperma or Persian) consist of a pale grey to dark grey seed coated with red cotyledons (Kaur et al., 2010).
In addition to valuable nutrients, lentils contain anti-nutritional substances such as trypsin inhibitors and oligosaccharides. The preparation processes can significantly reduce or eliminate the anti-nutritional components but damage their dietary characteristics. For instance, soaking, germination, boiling, as well as cooking improved the availability of proteins, starch, several minerals, and vitamins (Fabbri and Crosby, 2016).
Therefore, the fundamental objective of the current investigation was to evaluate the physicochemical, nutritional, and antioxidant features of two cultivars of Iranian lentils, including green (with green hull and yellow cotyledon) and black (with black hull and red cotyledon) lentils. Additionally, variations in physicochemical characteristics were compared in raw, germinated, and cooked samples.
Materials and Methods
Chemicals and reagents
Folin Ciocalteau’s phenol reagent, gallic acid monohydrate, 2,4,6-tris (2-pyridyl)-s-triazine (TPTZ), and 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl-hydrate (DPPH) were obtained from Sigma-Aldrich (Sternheim, Germany). Sodium carbonate, potassium acetate, ferrous sulfate, sodium acetate, and sodium sulfate were also applied from Sigma. The organic solvents, including methanol and ethanol, were purchased from Merck (Darmstadt, Germany). All chemicals were applied as received without any further purification.
Preparation of germinated and cooked lentils
The green lentil sample was provided from a local supermarket in Mashhad, Khorasan Razavi province, Iran, in March 2019. The black lentil sample was also obtained from a local market in Bahabad, Yazd, Iran. The cleaned samples were stored in polyethylene bags at 4˚C after removal of foreign matter and broken or damaged seeds.
The raw samples were prepared as follows. A minimum sample size of 100 g of each cultivar was mixed and grounded using an electric mill (IKA, A11 basic) and passed through a No.35 (500-µm) sieve set. The resulting powders were placed in appropriately labeled Polyethylene bags and stored at 4 ˚C for further analysis.
Seeds need to be exposed to water and oxygen to germinate. In general, the cleaned seeds are soaked in water for one to several days to ensure complete hydration. The following procedure was adopted to prepare the germinated samples. Lentil (10 g) of each cultivar was transferred to a Petri dish and soaked in water for one overnight. The excess water was then discarded and the seeds were covered with filter paper. The dishes were maintained at room temperature (23-25 ˚C) for the next few days for germination. Sufficient moisture was maintained by occasionally adding drops of water to wet the filter paper. The seeds were germinated in 3 to 4 days.
The cooked green and black lentils were prepared by transferring 10 g of each sample into 500 ml of boiling water. The process was continued for the following 15 min, and then the samples were filtered.
Chemical composition analysis
The determination of ash content, total fat, and crude fiber was conducted using standard test methods (de Almeida Costa et al., 2006). The moisture was calculated through gravimetric analysis, and by drying the samples at 110˚C until constant weight. The Kjeldahl method was utilize for nitrogen content, and a factor of 6.25 was employed to estimate the protein content (Helrich, 1990). A GBC SensAA atomic absorption spectrometer (GBC Scientific Equipment, Australia) with a continuum deuterium source as the background correction system was utilized for the determination of metal elements. The apparatus featured flame and graphite furnace atomizers along with single-element hollow cathode lamps. The operating conditions adjusted in the atomic absorption spectrometer were prosecuted according to the standard guidelines of the manufacturer.
Seeds need to be exposed to water and oxygen to germinate. In general, the cleaned seeds are soaked in water for one to several days to ensure complete hydration. The following procedure was adopted to prepare the germinated samples. Lentil (10 g) of each cultivar was transferred to a Petri dish and soaked in water for one overnight. The excess water was then discarded and the seeds were covered with filter paper. The dishes were maintained at room temperature (23-25 ˚C) for the next few days for germination. Sufficient moisture was maintained by occasionally adding drops of water to wet the filter paper. The seeds were germinated in 3 to 4 days.
The cooked green and black lentils were prepared by transferring 10 g of each sample into 500 ml of boiling water. The process was continued for the following 15 min, and then the samples were filtered.
Chemical composition analysis
The determination of ash content, total fat, and crude fiber was conducted using standard test methods (de Almeida Costa et al., 2006). The moisture was calculated through gravimetric analysis, and by drying the samples at 110˚C until constant weight. The Kjeldahl method was utilize for nitrogen content, and a factor of 6.25 was employed to estimate the protein content (Helrich, 1990). A GBC SensAA atomic absorption spectrometer (GBC Scientific Equipment, Australia) with a continuum deuterium source as the background correction system was utilized for the determination of metal elements. The apparatus featured flame and graphite furnace atomizers along with single-element hollow cathode lamps. The operating conditions adjusted in the atomic absorption spectrometer were prosecuted according to the standard guidelines of the manufacturer.
Preparation of the sample extracts
An ethanolic extract was formed from the lentil samples. The samples were grounded using an electric mill and, 25 mL of ethanol solution (70 %v/v) was added to 0.5 g of the resulting powder and stirred for 30 min. Subsequently, the mixture was filtered, and the filtrate was stored in a closed Polyethylene tube at 4 ˚C until analysis. The extracts were applied for the determination of antioxidant activities and Total phenolic compound (TPC).
Determination of total content of phenolic compounds
TPC was quantified according to the standard spectrophotometric method using Folin-Ciocalteu reagent diluted in distilled water at a ratio of 1:10 (Esmaeelian et al., 2020). The diluted reagent (1.5 mL) was added to 200 µl of each sample extract. The mixtures were shaken for 5 min and followed by the addition of 2 ml of the saturated sodium carbonate solution (approximately75 g/l). The samples were stored in the dark at room temperature (23-25 ˚C) for the following 30 min, and the absorbance was read at 765 nm (DR 5000™ UV-Vis, Hach Company, USA). A calibration curve was plotted using gallic acid as the standard, and TPC was expressed as milligram Gallic Acid Equivalents (mg GAE) in 100 g dry weight of the sample.
Determination of antioxidant activity
The standard DPPH method was used to determine the antioxidant activity of lentil extracts (Zhou et al., 2017). The sample extracts were diluted to various concentrations and 2 ml of each solution was mixed with 2 ml of DPPH solution (40 mg/l in ethanol) daily prepared. The samples remained at room temperature (23-25 ˚C) for 30 min prior to spectrophotometric measurements at 517 nm. Subsequently, the free radical-scavenging activity was calculated according to following Equation and expressed as the percentage inhibition of DPPH.
Where Ablank and Asample are the absorbance of the blank and test solutions, respectively. The sample concentration providing 50% inhibition (IC50) was determined using exponential regression analysis from the curve of inhibition % versus the extract concentration (1000-50000 mg/ml) with a regression equation of Y=25.59 Ln(X)-256.4, R2=0.996.
Data analysis
All measurements were performed in three replications, and T-test statistical analysis was conducted to compare mean values (Duncan's test at a p-value of 0.05). Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed to identify any significant differences at a significance level of p<0.05 (using Tukey HSD multiple range test).
Results
Proximate composition
As demonstrated in Table 1, the content of moisture and volatiles was increased for both cultivates during processing. The green lentil sample contains higher moisture content in all three forms and proved a superior capacity to absorb water.
| Table 1. Chemical composition of black and green lentils. | ||||||
| Type of lentil | Moisture (g/100 g) |
Total ash (g/100 g) |
Total fat (g/100 g) |
Protein (g/100 g) |
Fiber (g/100 g) |
Carbohydrate (g/100 g) |
| Green lentil Raw |
7.95±0.02 c, D |
3.28±0.25 a, B |
1.72±0.11 a, B |
26.57±0.41 a, D |
4.59±0.37 a, B |
55.89±0.49 a, A |
| Germinated | 15.29±0.54 a, A | 2.04±0.06 b, DE | 1.31±0.15 b, CD | 27.34±0.20 a, CD | 1.87±0.23 c, DE | 52.14±0.12 c, BC |
| Cooked | 14.28±0.29 b, B | 1.60±0.15 c, E | 1.02±0.16 b, D | 26.64±0.70 a, D | 2.63±0.31 b, CD | 53.83±1.07 b, ABC |
| Black lentil Raw |
6.81±0.30 c, E | 3.83±0.21 a, A | 2.12±0.17 a, A | 28.43±0.58 b, BC | 7.41±0.41 a, A | 51.39±1.04 b, C |
| Germinated | 8.96±0.20 a, C | 2.86±0.11 b, BC | 1.60±0.16 b, BC | 30.37±0.91 a, A | 1.28±0.40 c, E | 54.93±1.35 a, AB |
| Cooked | 8.15±0.36b, CD | 2.42±0.20 b, CD | 1.30±0.10 b, CD | 29.85±0.66 ab, AB | 3.32±0.38 b, C | 54.96±1.65 a, AB |
| Results are Mean ± standard deviation (n=3). Different superscripts show statistically significant differences (P < 0.05). Means with at least one identical superscript (uppercase letters) do not differ significantly (effect of lentil sample). Treated samples were also evaluated separately for each cultivar (lowercase letters). | ||||||
The total ash content of 1.60-3.28 and 2.42-3.83 g/100 g was measured for various forms of green and black lentils, respectively. Black lentil includes higher total ash, and raw lentils have higher ash content in both cultivars. As presented in Table 1, cooking and germination led to a significant decrease in fat content. Legumes are rich in protein, and their protein content is higher than cereals, fruits, and vegetables (Wang et al., 2003). The findings indicated that the black lentil contains more protein compared to the green cultivar. No significant changes were observed for the germinated and cooked green lentils, however, germinated black lentils had higher protein than the raw sample.
The results indicated that raw samples have the highest amount of fiber, and 4.59 and 7.41 g/100 g of fiber were measured in green and black lentils, respectively. The lowest amount of fiber was obtained in the germinated samples, and the results are consistent with previous studies (Bubelová et al., 2018). Carbohydrate content was also analyzed in all the samples. As illustrated in Table 1, green lentils in the raw state have higher carbohydrate (55.89 g/100 g) in comparison with germinated (52.14 g/100 g) and cooked samples (53.83 g/100 g). The carbohydrate content of raw black lentils (51.39 g/100g) was increased and reached 54.93 and 54.95 g/100g in the germinated and cooked samples, respectively.
Changes in the phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity
The phenolic content was analyzed in both the raw and treated samples. As revealed in Table 2, the raw black lentil has a higher TPC value compared to the green cultivar. Additionally, both cultivars experienced a notable decline in phenolic compounds following germination and cooking processes.
The antioxidant activity in germinated and cooked samples also uncovered a decrease, as observed in Table 2. The results exhibited lower IC50 values, or higher antioxidant activities, for black lentils in all three conditions.
The results indicated that raw samples have the highest amount of fiber, and 4.59 and 7.41 g/100 g of fiber were measured in green and black lentils, respectively. The lowest amount of fiber was obtained in the germinated samples, and the results are consistent with previous studies (Bubelová et al., 2018). Carbohydrate content was also analyzed in all the samples. As illustrated in Table 1, green lentils in the raw state have higher carbohydrate (55.89 g/100 g) in comparison with germinated (52.14 g/100 g) and cooked samples (53.83 g/100 g). The carbohydrate content of raw black lentils (51.39 g/100g) was increased and reached 54.93 and 54.95 g/100g in the germinated and cooked samples, respectively.
Changes in the phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity
The phenolic content was analyzed in both the raw and treated samples. As revealed in Table 2, the raw black lentil has a higher TPC value compared to the green cultivar. Additionally, both cultivars experienced a notable decline in phenolic compounds following germination and cooking processes.
The antioxidant activity in germinated and cooked samples also uncovered a decrease, as observed in Table 2. The results exhibited lower IC50 values, or higher antioxidant activities, for black lentils in all three conditions.
| Table 2. Total phenolic content (TPC) and Antioxidant activity (IC50) in black and green lentils. | ||
| Type of lentil | TPC(mg GAE/100 g) | IC50 (mg/kg) |
| Green Lentil | ||
| Raw | 52.59±4.45 a, B | 4528.11±2.96 c, E |
| Germinated | 30.37±1.97 b, CD | 12094.57±1.96 b, D |
| Cooked | 14.44±2.60 c, E | 31819.80±3.80 a, A |
| Black Lentil | ||
| Raw | 69.84±5.48 a, A | 2410.59±2.46 c, F |
| Germinated | 31.50±2.94 b, C | 15269.83±1.27 b, C |
| Cooked | 21.20±2.13 c, DE | 28223.03±2.62 a, B |
| Results are Mean ± standard deviation (n=3). Different superscripts show statistically significant differences (P < 0.05). Means with at least one identical superscript (uppercase letters) do not differ significantly (effect of lentil sample). Treated samples were also evaluated separately for each cultivar (lowercase letters). | ||
The findings demonstrated that the raw black lentil had a greater quantity of phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity compared to the green variety. The findings confirmed the previous works which notified the higher antioxidant activity of black lentils among the other seven different studied cultivars. The higher antioxidant activity of legumes with a darker skin color has also been reported.
Change in the mineral contents
The mineral contents of the raw, germinated, and cooked lentil samples are displayed in Table 3. The black cultivar presented a higher quantity of mineral elements, particularly K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Cu, and Zn.
| Table 3. Effect of different treatments on the selected mineral contents (mg/kg) of lentils. | ||||||||
| Type of lentil | K | Cu | Fe | Mg | Ca | Zn | Mn | Na |
| Green lentil | ||||||||
| Raw | 6297.8 a, B | 17.53 a, BC | 53.43 a, BC | 901.09 a, C | 626.32 a, C | 63.99 a, D | 30.18 a, B | 3908.4 a, A |
| Germinated | 6164.2 a, B | 12.83 b, D | 59.73 a, ABC | 725.06 b, D | 465.14 b, D | 45.61 b, E | 29.38 a, B | 152.4 b, C |
| Cooked | 3648.3 b, C | 12.75 b, D | 36.75 b, D | 684.70 b, D | 463.22 b, D | 42.12 b, E | 27.85 a, B | 97.1 b, C |
| Black lentil | ||||||||
| Raw | 7525.9 a, A | 28.65 a, A | 67.44 a, A | 1164.59 a, A | 1276.51 a, A | 156.67 a, A | 38.84 a, A | 3251.3 a, A |
| Germinated | 7691.3 a, A | 19.56 b, B | 61.50 a, AB | 1008.41 b, B | 902.58 b, B | 139.75 b, B | 37.07 a, A | 869.3 b, BC |
| Cooked | 3772.9 b, C | 15.75 c, C | 50.68 b, C | 965.64 b, BC | 812.41 c, B | 120.25 c, C | 28.79 b, B | 1192.4 b, B |
| Different superscripts show statistically significant differences (P < 0.05). Means with at least one identical superscript (uppercase letters) do not differ significantly (effect of lentil sample). Treated samples were also evaluated separately for each cultivar (lowercase letters). | ||||||||
Significant reductions were observed in the levels of K (48.9%), Cu (45.1%), Ca (36%), Mn (25.9%), Fe (24.9%), and Zn (23.1%) in the black lentil during cooking. Similarly, cooking resulted in a significant reduction of K (42.1%), Zn (34.2%), Fe (31.3%), Cu (27.3%), Ca (26.1%), and Mg (24.1%) in the green lentil cultivar.
Discussion
Typically, lentil seeds contain more moisture content compared to other legumes (Aryee and Boye, 2017). Nevertheless, storage conditions can affect the seed's characteristics. The substantial storage conditions that influence any grain are temperature and moisture content (Sravanthi et al., 2013). An increase in moisture content in cooked and germinated samples is due to water absorption. Additionally, a notable reduction of ash in the germinated and cooked samples can be attributed to either the loss of some grain husk (Bubelová et al., 2018) or the dissolution of water-soluble minerals during these processes (Duenas et al., 2016). The other studies also noticed an improvement in several nutritional properties with an ash reduction during cooking and germination of lentils (Guo et al., 2012). within comparison to other legumes, lentils have less ash content than beans and chickpeas and more than peas (Hoover and Ratnayake, 2002).
Lentils include a low content of fats approximately equal to chickpea and pea and most grains such as rice and wheat (Iqbal et al., 2006). During germination, carbon is utilized as the primary source for growth, and fatty acids are oxidized to carbon dioxide and water to generate energy (Megat Rusydi et al., 2011). Moreover, other identical investigations reported a decrease in fat content after cooking (Aryee and Boye, 2017).
An increase in protein content during germination can be due to the synthesis of enzymatic proteins, hormonal changes, increase in amino acids, peptides, nitrogenous compounds, and release of free amino acids following hydrolysis (Nonogaki et al., 2010). Furthermore, increasing the amount of protein in the cooked samples can result from the enhanced solubility and consequently leading to a higher concentration. Identical alterations were reported in the protein content of dark beans and lentils following germination and cooking as well (Aryee and Boye, 2017, Duenas et al., 2016).
The fiber content diminished during thermal processes like cooking, due to the volume reduction of Pectic Polysaccharides and dissolution/destruction of hemicellulose polymer into simple carbohydrates (Rehinan et al., 2004). Due to the increase of alpha-galactosidase activity during legumes germination, a reduction in oligosaccharides content occurs and leads to a decrease in the crude fiber (Ghavidel and Prakash, 2007).
Carbohydrates are regarded as the main component in the lentil seeds, ranging between 43.4 to 74.9 g/100 g of dry matter (Iqbal et al., 2006). Starch is the principal polysaccharide observed in lentils and serves as the primary source of energy. Lentil seeds involve starch in the range of 34.7 to 65% in the matter (Hoover and Ratnayake, 2002).
A reduction in the phenolic content due to the germination process is also reported in red lentils (Moslem et al., 2016) and germinated legumes and rice (Megat Rusydi et al., 2011). Androgen enzymes influenced the phenolic content alterations in the germination process (Gharachorloo et al., 2013). The anti-radical activity of phenolic compounds relies on their molecular structure and phenolic hydrogen availability (Singh et al., 2014). Additional research also indicated a significant reduction in phenolic compounds following cooking various legumes, including lentils (López et al., 2017). The decrease of phenolic content in the cooking process results from the dissolution of phenols during the hydrothermal events, breaking of the phenolic compounds, chemical transfer, and decomposition into phenol-protein complexes (Sasipriya and Siddhuraju, 2012, Siddhuraju and Becker, 2007).
The reason for the decrease in antioxidant activity post-cooking is the reduction of antioxidant compounds and the rise in solubility (López et al., 2017). The increase in antioxidant activity after germination may result from the rise in the number of antioxidant compounds except for polyphenols. Furthermore, legumes contain additional bioactive compounds besides phenolics, such as vitamins and carotenoids, which could interact synergistically with phenolic compounds or among themselves. The variance in antioxidant compound numbers may be primarily attributed to this reason (Singh et al., 2014). Zou et al. reported that lentils have a greater antioxidant capacity compared to common fruits and vegetables such as apple, cherry, plum, broccoli, cabbage, grapes, dried bean, onion, and potato (Zou et al., 2011).
The findings indicated that both green and black lentils experienced mineral depletion. Such losses were attributed to the leaching of minerals from the lentil’s seeds into the cooking water. Therefore, cooking would not reduce mineral levels if the cooking water is not discarded. Identical findings were also observed in other studies regarding lentils processing, attributed to the diffusion of specific minerals by water (Aryee and Boye, 2017). The decrease of ash content, as presented in Table 1, was also noted in the treated samples. The removal of the husk, which is rich in minerals, explains the low ash content of both cooked and germinated samples. (Bubelová et al., 2018).
Conclusion
This research revealed that black lentils contained the most ash, fat, protein, crude fiber, total phenol, and antioxidant activity the highest amount of ash, fat, protein, crude fiber, total phenol, and antioxidant activity in black lentils. However, the green lentil exhibited elevated levels of carbohydrates only in the raw state. Hence, it can be deduced that the black lentil has a higher nutritional quality and antioxidant capacity compared to the green lentil. The germination and cooking process decreased all measured characteristics except for protein content. The cooked lentils (compared to raw ones) possessed fewer polyphenols, ash, fat, and fiber and, additionally, lower (though still relevant) antioxidant activity. In contrast, the germinated samples (compared to cooked ones) revealed higher contents of ash and polyphenols and better antioxidant activity and decreased fiber content. Cooked samples displayed a fundamental reduction of minerals (compared to raw ones) however, cooking would not reduce mineral levels if the cooking water is not discarded.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge all research laboratories of the research institute of food science and technology (RIFST) which support chemical analysis. The authors also thank the Islamic Azad University of Sabzevar and Takchin Almas Sahar Company (Hosseini Brothers Nuts).
Authors' contributions
Yaghtini M: Investigation, data curation, and writing draft of manuscript; Jahani M: Supervision, methodology, formal analysis, investigation, review and editing the draft of manuscript; Feizy J: Methodology, resources, review and editing draft of manuscript; Hoseini Taheri SE and Estiri H: Funding acquisition, review and editing the draft of manuscript. All authors contributed to the study conception and design. All authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript and approved the final manuscript.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Funding
This work was supported by the Takchin Almas Sahar Company (Hosseini Brothers Nuts), Mashhad, Iran and Islamic Azad university of Sabzevar, Iran.
References
Aryee AN & Boye JI 2017. Comparative study of the effects of processing on the nutritional, physicochemical and functional properties of lentil. Journal of food processing and preservation. 41 (1): e12824.
Bhavya SN & Prakash J 2021. Nutritional properties of iron fortified flatbreads enriched with greens and legumes. Journal of food processing and preservation. 45 (5): e15495.
Bubelová Z, Sumczynski D & Salek RN 2018. Effect of cooking and germination on antioxidant activity, total polyphenols and flavonoids, fiber content, and digestibility of lentils (Lens culinaris L.). Journal of food processing and preservation. 42 (1): e13388.
de Almeida Costa GE, da Silva Queiroz-Monici K, Reis SMPM & de Oliveira AC 2006. Chemical composition, dietary fibre and resistant starch contents of raw and cooked pea, common bean, chickpea and lentil legumes. Food chemistry. 94 (3): 327-330.
Duenas M, Hernandez T & Estrella I 2009. Comparative study of the phenolic composition in lentils processed with and without addition of commercial tannase. Journal of food processing and preservation. 33 (6): 695-713.
Duenas M, et al. 2016. Impact of cooking and germination on phenolic composition and dietary fibre fractions in dark beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and lentils (Lens culinaris L.). LWT-Food science and technology. 66: 72-78.
Esmaeelian M, Jahani M, Feizy J & Einafshar S 2020. Effects of Ultrasound-Assisted and Direct Solvent Extraction Methods on the Antioxidant and Antibacterial Properties of Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) Corm Extract. Food analytical methods. 14: 74-87.
Fabbri AD & Crosby GA 2016. A review of the impact of preparation and cooking on the nutritional quality of vegetables and legumes. International journal of gastronomy and food science. 3: 2-11.
Gharachorloo M, Tarzi BG & Baharinia M 2013. The effect of germination on phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity of pulses. Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society. 90 (3): 407-411.
Ghavidel RA & Prakash J 2007. The impact of germination and dehulling on nutrients, antinutrients, in vitro iron and calcium bioavailability and in vitro starch and protein digestibility of some legume seeds. LWT-Food science and technology. 40 (7): 1292-1299.
Guo X, Li T, Tang K & Liu RH 2012. Effect of germination on phytochemical profiles and antioxidant activity of mung bean sprouts (Vigna radiata). Journal of agricultural and food chemistry. 60 (44): 11050-11055.
Helrich K 1990. Official methods of analysis of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists. Association of official analytical chemists.
Hoover R & Ratnayake W 2002. Starch characteristics of black bean, chick pea, lentil, navy bean and pinto bean cultivars grown in Canada. Food chemistry. 78 (4): 489-498.
Iqbal A, Khalil IA, Ateeq N & Sayyar Khan M 2006. Nutritional quality of important food legumes. Food chemistry. 97 (2): 331-335.
Kaur M, Sandhu KS & Lim S-T 2010. Microstructure, physicochemical properties and in vitro digestibility of starches from different Indian lentil (Lens culinaris) cultivars. Carbohydrate polymers. 79 (2): 349-355.
López A, et al. 2017. Influence of processing in the phenolic composition and health‐promoting properties of lentils (Lens culinaris L.). Journal of food processing and preservation. 41 (5): e13113.
Megat Rusydi M, Noraliza C, Azrina A & Zulkhairi A 2011. Nutritional changes in germinated legumes and rice varieties. International food research journal. 18 (2): 703.
Moslem F, Ghavidl R, Sharifi A & Esteri S 2016. Effect of germination on some of the chemical properties and antioxidant activity of red lentils. Journal of innovation in food science and technology. 8 (2): 73-82.
Nonogaki H, Bassel GW & Bewley JD 2010. Germination- Still a mystery. Plant science. 179 (6): 574-581.
Portman D, Blanchard C, Maharjan P, Naiker M & Panozzo JF 2019. Water‐soluble carbohydrates during fermentation and baking of composite wheat and lentil flour—Implications for enhanced functionality. Cereal chemistry. 96 (3): 447-455.
Rebello CJ, Greenway FL & Finley JW 2014. A review of the nutritional value of legumes and their effects on obesity and its related co-morbidities. Obesity reviews. 15 (5): 392-407.
Rehinan Z-u, Rashid M & Shah W 2004. Insoluble dietary fibre components of food legumes as affected by soaking and cooking processes. Food chemistry. 85 (2): 245-249.
Sasipriya G & Siddhuraju P 2012. Effect of different processing methods on antioxidant activity of underutilized legumes, Entada scandens seed kernel and Canavalia gladiata seeds. Food and chemical toxicology. 50 (8): 2864-2872.
Siddhuraju P & Becker K 2007. The antioxidant and free radical scavenging activities of processed cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.) seed extracts. Food chemistry. 101 (1): 10-19.
Singh P, et al. 2014. Effects of germination on antioxidant and anti nutritional factors of commonly used pulses. International journal of research in chemistry and environment. 4 (2): 100-104.
Siva N, et al. 2018. Lentil (Lens culinaris Medikus) diet affects the gut microbiome and obesity markers in rat. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry. 66 (33): 8805-8813.
Sravanthi B, Jayas D, Alagusundaram K, Chelladurai V & White N 2013. Effect of storage conditions on red lentils. Journal of stored products research. 53: 48-53.
Stefaniak TR & McPhee KE 2015. Lentil. In Grain Legumes (ed. A. M. De Ron), pp. 111-140. Springer New York: New York, NY.
Wang TL, Domoney C, Hedley CL, Casey R & Grusak MA 2003. Can we improve the nutritional quality of legume seeds? Plant physiology. 131 (3): 886-891.
Xu B, Yuan S & Chang S 2007. Comparative analyses of phenolic composition, antioxidant capacity, and color of cool season legumes and other selected food legumes. Journal of food science. 72 (2): S167-S177.
Zhou QC, Liu N & Feng CX 2017. Research on the effect of papain co‐extrusion on pea protein and enzymolysis antioxidant peptides. Journal of food processing and preservation. 41 (6): e13301.
Zou Y, Chang SK, Gu Y & Qian SY 2011. Antioxidant activity and phenolic compositions of lentil (Lens culinaris var. Morton) extract and its fractions. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry. 59 (6): 2268-2276.
Discussion
Typically, lentil seeds contain more moisture content compared to other legumes (Aryee and Boye, 2017). Nevertheless, storage conditions can affect the seed's characteristics. The substantial storage conditions that influence any grain are temperature and moisture content (Sravanthi et al., 2013). An increase in moisture content in cooked and germinated samples is due to water absorption. Additionally, a notable reduction of ash in the germinated and cooked samples can be attributed to either the loss of some grain husk (Bubelová et al., 2018) or the dissolution of water-soluble minerals during these processes (Duenas et al., 2016). The other studies also noticed an improvement in several nutritional properties with an ash reduction during cooking and germination of lentils (Guo et al., 2012). within comparison to other legumes, lentils have less ash content than beans and chickpeas and more than peas (Hoover and Ratnayake, 2002).
Lentils include a low content of fats approximately equal to chickpea and pea and most grains such as rice and wheat (Iqbal et al., 2006). During germination, carbon is utilized as the primary source for growth, and fatty acids are oxidized to carbon dioxide and water to generate energy (Megat Rusydi et al., 2011). Moreover, other identical investigations reported a decrease in fat content after cooking (Aryee and Boye, 2017).
An increase in protein content during germination can be due to the synthesis of enzymatic proteins, hormonal changes, increase in amino acids, peptides, nitrogenous compounds, and release of free amino acids following hydrolysis (Nonogaki et al., 2010). Furthermore, increasing the amount of protein in the cooked samples can result from the enhanced solubility and consequently leading to a higher concentration. Identical alterations were reported in the protein content of dark beans and lentils following germination and cooking as well (Aryee and Boye, 2017, Duenas et al., 2016).
The fiber content diminished during thermal processes like cooking, due to the volume reduction of Pectic Polysaccharides and dissolution/destruction of hemicellulose polymer into simple carbohydrates (Rehinan et al., 2004). Due to the increase of alpha-galactosidase activity during legumes germination, a reduction in oligosaccharides content occurs and leads to a decrease in the crude fiber (Ghavidel and Prakash, 2007).
Carbohydrates are regarded as the main component in the lentil seeds, ranging between 43.4 to 74.9 g/100 g of dry matter (Iqbal et al., 2006). Starch is the principal polysaccharide observed in lentils and serves as the primary source of energy. Lentil seeds involve starch in the range of 34.7 to 65% in the matter (Hoover and Ratnayake, 2002).
A reduction in the phenolic content due to the germination process is also reported in red lentils (Moslem et al., 2016) and germinated legumes and rice (Megat Rusydi et al., 2011). Androgen enzymes influenced the phenolic content alterations in the germination process (Gharachorloo et al., 2013). The anti-radical activity of phenolic compounds relies on their molecular structure and phenolic hydrogen availability (Singh et al., 2014). Additional research also indicated a significant reduction in phenolic compounds following cooking various legumes, including lentils (López et al., 2017). The decrease of phenolic content in the cooking process results from the dissolution of phenols during the hydrothermal events, breaking of the phenolic compounds, chemical transfer, and decomposition into phenol-protein complexes (Sasipriya and Siddhuraju, 2012, Siddhuraju and Becker, 2007).
The reason for the decrease in antioxidant activity post-cooking is the reduction of antioxidant compounds and the rise in solubility (López et al., 2017). The increase in antioxidant activity after germination may result from the rise in the number of antioxidant compounds except for polyphenols. Furthermore, legumes contain additional bioactive compounds besides phenolics, such as vitamins and carotenoids, which could interact synergistically with phenolic compounds or among themselves. The variance in antioxidant compound numbers may be primarily attributed to this reason (Singh et al., 2014). Zou et al. reported that lentils have a greater antioxidant capacity compared to common fruits and vegetables such as apple, cherry, plum, broccoli, cabbage, grapes, dried bean, onion, and potato (Zou et al., 2011).
The findings indicated that both green and black lentils experienced mineral depletion. Such losses were attributed to the leaching of minerals from the lentil’s seeds into the cooking water. Therefore, cooking would not reduce mineral levels if the cooking water is not discarded. Identical findings were also observed in other studies regarding lentils processing, attributed to the diffusion of specific minerals by water (Aryee and Boye, 2017). The decrease of ash content, as presented in Table 1, was also noted in the treated samples. The removal of the husk, which is rich in minerals, explains the low ash content of both cooked and germinated samples. (Bubelová et al., 2018).
Conclusion
This research revealed that black lentils contained the most ash, fat, protein, crude fiber, total phenol, and antioxidant activity the highest amount of ash, fat, protein, crude fiber, total phenol, and antioxidant activity in black lentils. However, the green lentil exhibited elevated levels of carbohydrates only in the raw state. Hence, it can be deduced that the black lentil has a higher nutritional quality and antioxidant capacity compared to the green lentil. The germination and cooking process decreased all measured characteristics except for protein content. The cooked lentils (compared to raw ones) possessed fewer polyphenols, ash, fat, and fiber and, additionally, lower (though still relevant) antioxidant activity. In contrast, the germinated samples (compared to cooked ones) revealed higher contents of ash and polyphenols and better antioxidant activity and decreased fiber content. Cooked samples displayed a fundamental reduction of minerals (compared to raw ones) however, cooking would not reduce mineral levels if the cooking water is not discarded.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge all research laboratories of the research institute of food science and technology (RIFST) which support chemical analysis. The authors also thank the Islamic Azad University of Sabzevar and Takchin Almas Sahar Company (Hosseini Brothers Nuts).
Authors' contributions
Yaghtini M: Investigation, data curation, and writing draft of manuscript; Jahani M: Supervision, methodology, formal analysis, investigation, review and editing the draft of manuscript; Feizy J: Methodology, resources, review and editing draft of manuscript; Hoseini Taheri SE and Estiri H: Funding acquisition, review and editing the draft of manuscript. All authors contributed to the study conception and design. All authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript and approved the final manuscript.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Funding
This work was supported by the Takchin Almas Sahar Company (Hosseini Brothers Nuts), Mashhad, Iran and Islamic Azad university of Sabzevar, Iran.
References
Aryee AN & Boye JI 2017. Comparative study of the effects of processing on the nutritional, physicochemical and functional properties of lentil. Journal of food processing and preservation. 41 (1): e12824.
Bhavya SN & Prakash J 2021. Nutritional properties of iron fortified flatbreads enriched with greens and legumes. Journal of food processing and preservation. 45 (5): e15495.
Bubelová Z, Sumczynski D & Salek RN 2018. Effect of cooking and germination on antioxidant activity, total polyphenols and flavonoids, fiber content, and digestibility of lentils (Lens culinaris L.). Journal of food processing and preservation. 42 (1): e13388.
de Almeida Costa GE, da Silva Queiroz-Monici K, Reis SMPM & de Oliveira AC 2006. Chemical composition, dietary fibre and resistant starch contents of raw and cooked pea, common bean, chickpea and lentil legumes. Food chemistry. 94 (3): 327-330.
Duenas M, Hernandez T & Estrella I 2009. Comparative study of the phenolic composition in lentils processed with and without addition of commercial tannase. Journal of food processing and preservation. 33 (6): 695-713.
Duenas M, et al. 2016. Impact of cooking and germination on phenolic composition and dietary fibre fractions in dark beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and lentils (Lens culinaris L.). LWT-Food science and technology. 66: 72-78.
Esmaeelian M, Jahani M, Feizy J & Einafshar S 2020. Effects of Ultrasound-Assisted and Direct Solvent Extraction Methods on the Antioxidant and Antibacterial Properties of Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) Corm Extract. Food analytical methods. 14: 74-87.
Fabbri AD & Crosby GA 2016. A review of the impact of preparation and cooking on the nutritional quality of vegetables and legumes. International journal of gastronomy and food science. 3: 2-11.
Gharachorloo M, Tarzi BG & Baharinia M 2013. The effect of germination on phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity of pulses. Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society. 90 (3): 407-411.
Ghavidel RA & Prakash J 2007. The impact of germination and dehulling on nutrients, antinutrients, in vitro iron and calcium bioavailability and in vitro starch and protein digestibility of some legume seeds. LWT-Food science and technology. 40 (7): 1292-1299.
Guo X, Li T, Tang K & Liu RH 2012. Effect of germination on phytochemical profiles and antioxidant activity of mung bean sprouts (Vigna radiata). Journal of agricultural and food chemistry. 60 (44): 11050-11055.
Helrich K 1990. Official methods of analysis of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists. Association of official analytical chemists.
Hoover R & Ratnayake W 2002. Starch characteristics of black bean, chick pea, lentil, navy bean and pinto bean cultivars grown in Canada. Food chemistry. 78 (4): 489-498.
Iqbal A, Khalil IA, Ateeq N & Sayyar Khan M 2006. Nutritional quality of important food legumes. Food chemistry. 97 (2): 331-335.
Kaur M, Sandhu KS & Lim S-T 2010. Microstructure, physicochemical properties and in vitro digestibility of starches from different Indian lentil (Lens culinaris) cultivars. Carbohydrate polymers. 79 (2): 349-355.
López A, et al. 2017. Influence of processing in the phenolic composition and health‐promoting properties of lentils (Lens culinaris L.). Journal of food processing and preservation. 41 (5): e13113.
Megat Rusydi M, Noraliza C, Azrina A & Zulkhairi A 2011. Nutritional changes in germinated legumes and rice varieties. International food research journal. 18 (2): 703.
Moslem F, Ghavidl R, Sharifi A & Esteri S 2016. Effect of germination on some of the chemical properties and antioxidant activity of red lentils. Journal of innovation in food science and technology. 8 (2): 73-82.
Nonogaki H, Bassel GW & Bewley JD 2010. Germination- Still a mystery. Plant science. 179 (6): 574-581.
Portman D, Blanchard C, Maharjan P, Naiker M & Panozzo JF 2019. Water‐soluble carbohydrates during fermentation and baking of composite wheat and lentil flour—Implications for enhanced functionality. Cereal chemistry. 96 (3): 447-455.
Rebello CJ, Greenway FL & Finley JW 2014. A review of the nutritional value of legumes and their effects on obesity and its related co-morbidities. Obesity reviews. 15 (5): 392-407.
Rehinan Z-u, Rashid M & Shah W 2004. Insoluble dietary fibre components of food legumes as affected by soaking and cooking processes. Food chemistry. 85 (2): 245-249.
Sasipriya G & Siddhuraju P 2012. Effect of different processing methods on antioxidant activity of underutilized legumes, Entada scandens seed kernel and Canavalia gladiata seeds. Food and chemical toxicology. 50 (8): 2864-2872.
Siddhuraju P & Becker K 2007. The antioxidant and free radical scavenging activities of processed cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.) seed extracts. Food chemistry. 101 (1): 10-19.
Singh P, et al. 2014. Effects of germination on antioxidant and anti nutritional factors of commonly used pulses. International journal of research in chemistry and environment. 4 (2): 100-104.
Siva N, et al. 2018. Lentil (Lens culinaris Medikus) diet affects the gut microbiome and obesity markers in rat. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry. 66 (33): 8805-8813.
Sravanthi B, Jayas D, Alagusundaram K, Chelladurai V & White N 2013. Effect of storage conditions on red lentils. Journal of stored products research. 53: 48-53.
Stefaniak TR & McPhee KE 2015. Lentil. In Grain Legumes (ed. A. M. De Ron), pp. 111-140. Springer New York: New York, NY.
Wang TL, Domoney C, Hedley CL, Casey R & Grusak MA 2003. Can we improve the nutritional quality of legume seeds? Plant physiology. 131 (3): 886-891.
Xu B, Yuan S & Chang S 2007. Comparative analyses of phenolic composition, antioxidant capacity, and color of cool season legumes and other selected food legumes. Journal of food science. 72 (2): S167-S177.
Zhou QC, Liu N & Feng CX 2017. Research on the effect of papain co‐extrusion on pea protein and enzymolysis antioxidant peptides. Journal of food processing and preservation. 41 (6): e13301.
Zou Y, Chang SK, Gu Y & Qian SY 2011. Antioxidant activity and phenolic compositions of lentil (Lens culinaris var. Morton) extract and its fractions. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry. 59 (6): 2268-2276.
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Received: 2022/06/28 | Published: 2024/05/21 | ePublished: 2024/05/21
Received: 2022/06/28 | Published: 2024/05/21 | ePublished: 2024/05/21
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