Sun, May 24, 2026
[Archive]
Volume 11, Issue 2 (May 2026)
JNFS 2026, 11(2): 252-259 |
Back to browse issues page
Download citation:
BibTeX | RIS | EndNote | Medlars | ProCite | Reference Manager | RefWorks
Send citation to:
BibTeX | RIS | EndNote | Medlars | ProCite | Reference Manager | RefWorks
Send citation to:
Purnomo M, Rohmah Mayasari N, Yanuar Dini C, Fathur Rohman M, Labib Siena Ar Rasyid M. The Effect of Caffeinated Chewing Gum on the Levels of VO2 Max among Physically Active Individuals. JNFS 2026; 11 (2) :252-259
URL: http://jnfs.ssu.ac.ir/article-1-1345-en.html
URL: http://jnfs.ssu.ac.ir/article-1-1345-en.html
Mochamad Purnomo 
, Noor Rohmah Mayasari * , Cleonara Yanuar Dini , Moh. Fathur Rohman , Muhammad Labib Siena Ar Rasyid
, Noor Rohmah Mayasari * , Cleonara Yanuar Dini , Moh. Fathur Rohman , Muhammad Labib Siena Ar Rasyid
Department of Nutrition, Faculty of Sports and Health Sciences, Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Lidah Wetan, Kec. Lakarsantri, Surabaya, Jawa Timur, Indonesia
Full-Text [PDF 406 kb]
(65 Downloads)
| Abstract (HTML) (506 Views)
1 Department of Sports Coaching Education, Vocational Faculty, Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Lidah Wetan, Kec. Lakarsantri, Surabaya, Jawa Timur, Indonesia; 2 Department of Nutrition, Faculty of Sports and Health Sciences, Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Lidah Wetan, Kec. Lakarsantri, Surabaya, Jawa Timur, Indonesia;
3 Department of Health and Recreation Education, Faculty of Sports and Health Sciences, Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Lidah Wetan, Kec. Lakarsantri, Surabaya, Jawa Timur, Indonesia; 4 Pusat Unggulan IPTEK (PUI), Sport Exercise Research Center, Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Lidah Wetan, Kec. Lakarsantri, Surabaya, Jawa Timur, Indonesia.
Introduction
.PNG)
.PNG)
.PNG)
Full-Text: (16 Views)
The Effect of Caffeinated Chewing Gum on the Levels of VO2 Max among Physically Active Individuals
Mochamad Purnomo; SPd, MKes1,4, Noor Rohmah Mayasari; PhD*2, Cleonara Yanuar Dini; SGz, MSc, RD2,4,
Moh. Fathur Rohman; SPd, MPd3,4 & Muhammad Labib Siena Ar Rasyid; SPd, MPd3,4
Mochamad Purnomo; SPd, MKes1,4, Noor Rohmah Mayasari; PhD*2, Cleonara Yanuar Dini; SGz, MSc, RD2,4,
Moh. Fathur Rohman; SPd, MPd3,4 & Muhammad Labib Siena Ar Rasyid; SPd, MPd3,4
1 Department of Sports Coaching Education, Vocational Faculty, Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Lidah Wetan, Kec. Lakarsantri, Surabaya, Jawa Timur, Indonesia; 2 Department of Nutrition, Faculty of Sports and Health Sciences, Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Lidah Wetan, Kec. Lakarsantri, Surabaya, Jawa Timur, Indonesia;
3 Department of Health and Recreation Education, Faculty of Sports and Health Sciences, Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Lidah Wetan, Kec. Lakarsantri, Surabaya, Jawa Timur, Indonesia; 4 Pusat Unggulan IPTEK (PUI), Sport Exercise Research Center, Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Lidah Wetan, Kec. Lakarsantri, Surabaya, Jawa Timur, Indonesia.
| ARTICLE INFO | ABSTRACT | |
| ORIGINAL ARTICLE | Background: Caffeine is one of the most popular ergogenic aids widely used by coaches and athletes. Caffeinated chewing gums can be rapidly absorbed and may improve endurance as measured by VO2 max. This study investigates the effect of caffeinated chewing gum on the levels of VO2 max among physically active individuals. Methods: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, matched-pair trial design was used. Twenty-two physically active men were recruited and completed this study. Participants were then divided into two groups: A caffeinated chewing gum group (CG) and a placebo group (PG), with eleven participants in each group. Results: No adverse effect was reported by the participants during this study. The findings showed that caffeinated chewing gum was not effective in improving right or left handgrip and back or leg dynamometer but effectively increased VO2 Max (PG: 1.45±2.44 ml/kg vs CG: 4.14±2.12 ml/kg; P<0.012). Conclusion: This study concluded that a caffeine dose of ~180 mg or ~3 mg/kg body weight in chewing gum increases maximal oxygen uptake among physically active individuals. | |
| Article history: Received: 22 May 2025 Revised: 20 Oct 2025 Accepted: 21 Nov 2025 |
||
| *Corresponding author: noormayasari@unesa.ac.id Department of Nutrition, Faculty of Sports and Health Sciences, Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Lidah Wetan, Kec. Lakarsantri, Surabaya, Jawa Timur, Indonesia. Postal code: 60213 Tel: +62 31 7532571 |
||
| Keywords Caffeinated; Chewing gum; Oxygen consumption; Athlete; Physical fitness. |
Introduction
Maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 max) is a quantitative measure of aerobic capacity and is recognized as one of the most reliable indicators of overall physical and cardiorespiratory fitness of an individual (Srivastava et al., 2024). A higher VO2 max is associated with greater aerobic capacity and endurance potential among athletes, which describes sport performance (van Der Zwaard et al., 2021). A meta-analysis showed that high-intensity training significantly improves VO2 max among elite athletes and promotes aerobic capacity (Ma et al., 2023). Moreover, nutritional ergogenic aids, such as caffeine, beta-alanine, sodium bicarbonate, and sodium citrate, show a potential role in enhancing sport performance (Vicente-Salar et al., 2022).
Caffeine is a common ergogenic aid for athletes. Numerous studies reported the effect of caffeine on metabolism, physiology, and performance (Guest et al., 2021). Caffeine consumption improves isometric handgrip strength (Grgic, 2022) and lower-body muscular performance (Harty et al., 2020). It can be administered through several forms, frequently as capsules, powders, and energy drinks, as well as chewing gum, nasal spray, and mouth rinses (Yang et al., 2024). However, caffeine is effectively released up to 80% in the form of chewing gum within a short period of 5-10 minutes (Bellar et al., 2011). For example, a low dose of caffeinated chewing gum (100-300 mg or 2-4 mg/kg) is quickly absorbed and utilized, thereby impacting performance (Yang et al., 2024). Most studies have found that even
with lower dosages of caffeine, pre-exercise supplementation of caffeinated chewing gum is effective in increasing lower limb strength, repeated-sprint ability, endurance, and sport-specific performance, as well as lowering the rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and fatigue index (Yang et al., 2024).
Caffeine consumption can provide benefits in both the time to exhaustion and the maximal oxygen intake among active individuals. However, the effects of caffeine on VO2 max tend to be more inconsistent and likely depend on an individual’s tolerance levels and withdrawal durations from caffeine. Farmani et al. found that caffeinated chewing gum consumption for 10 minutes before exercise significantly increased table tennis players’ performance, but there was no significant effect on VO2 max (Farmani et al., 2024). On the other hand, a meta-analysis of 32 studies showed that low doses of caffeine positively impact most exercise and physiological performance (Yang et al., 2024). Nonetheless, limited studies have explored the effect of caffeine on VO2 max. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the effect of caffeinated chewing gum on increasing VO2 max among physically active individuals.
Materials and Methods
Design and participants
A double-blind, randomized placebo-controlled, matched-pair trial design was used to examine the effect of caffeinated chewing gum on strength and endurance performance among physically active students. Participants were pair-matched according to their baseline VO2 max values, then randomly allocated into caffeine (CG) and placebo groups (PG) using a coin toss (Figure 1).
The sample size was calculated with G*Power 3.1 (Faul et al., 2009). A sample size of 11 individuals per group was computed based on a significance threshold of 0.05 and a power (1-β) of 0.8. The inclusion criteria were as follows: Physically active male students aged 18-22 who engaged in training at least three times per week lasting about 1-2 hours. Volunteers who were caffeine-sensitive, unwell, or injured were excluded from this study using a generic pre-screening questionnaire. Eleven students were recruited and completed this study.
Procedures
Participants were instructed to maintain their regular food consumption, hydration, physical activity, and sleep patterns 48 hours before the testing sessions. They were provided with a journal to record the information throughout this study period. Participants were advised to engage in intense activity, avoid alcohol, and avoid caffeine consumption for 48 hours before the experiment. Food and activity data were reviewed to ensure compliance. Participants took part in three sessions at the Sport and Exercise Research Centre Hall, Universitas Negeri Surabaya (UNESA). The first session was a familiarization session without supplementation to help participants become accustomed to the testing procedures. Participants in the subsequent two sessions followed the same testing protocols but were given either caffeinated gum or placebo gum. All testing sessions were conducted at the same time of the day to control diurnal fluctuations. Prior to the familiarization experiment, body composition (HBF-375 digital scales, Karada scan, China), height (stature meter, GEA medical, Indonesia), blood glucose, cholesterol, uric acid (Easy Touch GCU, Taiwan), and hemoglobin (Easy Touch hemoglobin, Taiwan) were measured.
Caffeine is a common ergogenic aid for athletes. Numerous studies reported the effect of caffeine on metabolism, physiology, and performance (Guest et al., 2021). Caffeine consumption improves isometric handgrip strength (Grgic, 2022) and lower-body muscular performance (Harty et al., 2020). It can be administered through several forms, frequently as capsules, powders, and energy drinks, as well as chewing gum, nasal spray, and mouth rinses (Yang et al., 2024). However, caffeine is effectively released up to 80% in the form of chewing gum within a short period of 5-10 minutes (Bellar et al., 2011). For example, a low dose of caffeinated chewing gum (100-300 mg or 2-4 mg/kg) is quickly absorbed and utilized, thereby impacting performance (Yang et al., 2024). Most studies have found that even
with lower dosages of caffeine, pre-exercise supplementation of caffeinated chewing gum is effective in increasing lower limb strength, repeated-sprint ability, endurance, and sport-specific performance, as well as lowering the rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and fatigue index (Yang et al., 2024).
Caffeine consumption can provide benefits in both the time to exhaustion and the maximal oxygen intake among active individuals. However, the effects of caffeine on VO2 max tend to be more inconsistent and likely depend on an individual’s tolerance levels and withdrawal durations from caffeine. Farmani et al. found that caffeinated chewing gum consumption for 10 minutes before exercise significantly increased table tennis players’ performance, but there was no significant effect on VO2 max (Farmani et al., 2024). On the other hand, a meta-analysis of 32 studies showed that low doses of caffeine positively impact most exercise and physiological performance (Yang et al., 2024). Nonetheless, limited studies have explored the effect of caffeine on VO2 max. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the effect of caffeinated chewing gum on increasing VO2 max among physically active individuals.
Materials and Methods
Design and participants
A double-blind, randomized placebo-controlled, matched-pair trial design was used to examine the effect of caffeinated chewing gum on strength and endurance performance among physically active students. Participants were pair-matched according to their baseline VO2 max values, then randomly allocated into caffeine (CG) and placebo groups (PG) using a coin toss (Figure 1).
The sample size was calculated with G*Power 3.1 (Faul et al., 2009). A sample size of 11 individuals per group was computed based on a significance threshold of 0.05 and a power (1-β) of 0.8. The inclusion criteria were as follows: Physically active male students aged 18-22 who engaged in training at least three times per week lasting about 1-2 hours. Volunteers who were caffeine-sensitive, unwell, or injured were excluded from this study using a generic pre-screening questionnaire. Eleven students were recruited and completed this study.
Procedures
Participants were instructed to maintain their regular food consumption, hydration, physical activity, and sleep patterns 48 hours before the testing sessions. They were provided with a journal to record the information throughout this study period. Participants were advised to engage in intense activity, avoid alcohol, and avoid caffeine consumption for 48 hours before the experiment. Food and activity data were reviewed to ensure compliance. Participants took part in three sessions at the Sport and Exercise Research Centre Hall, Universitas Negeri Surabaya (UNESA). The first session was a familiarization session without supplementation to help participants become accustomed to the testing procedures. Participants in the subsequent two sessions followed the same testing protocols but were given either caffeinated gum or placebo gum. All testing sessions were conducted at the same time of the day to control diurnal fluctuations. Prior to the familiarization experiment, body composition (HBF-375 digital scales, Karada scan, China), height (stature meter, GEA medical, Indonesia), blood glucose, cholesterol, uric acid (Easy Touch GCU, Taiwan), and hemoglobin (Easy Touch hemoglobin, Taiwan) were measured.
Caffeinated gum and placebo gum
The experimental gum was mocha-flavored and contained 15 mg of caffeine per piece. The placebo gum was identical in flavor and appearance but contained no caffeine. Participants were instructed to consume 12 pieces of gum (180 mg of caffeine, corresponding to 2.7±0.04 mg/kg body weight) for five minutes following the warm-up. Furthermore, chewing was timed by the researchers using a portable timer.
Strength and fitness test
Each participant provided a fingertip blood sample upon arrival. Random glucose, uric acid, and hemoglobin levels were measured using the Easy Touch GCU 3-in-1 device (MT Promedt Consulting GmBH, Germany) through a one-time blood sample (finger-prick) carried out by an enumerator. Handgrip strength was measured to the nearest 0.1 kg with a handgrip, back, and leg dynamometer (Takei Scientific Instruments Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan). Participants stood with their arms lowered to the sides and their feet shoulder-width apart. They were instructed to grip the bar with their second finger and hold the dynamometer with each hand, back, and leg as hard as they could. Both sides were evaluated twice, with the highest values used.
Multiple fitness test (MFT)
The 20-meter MFT required participants to run back and forth between two lines set 20 meters apart at a pace determined by audio signals at fixed intervals (Dimarucot and Macapagal, 2021). The initial velocity was 8.5 km·h-1, increasing by 0.5 km·h-1 each minute thereafter. The participant’s test score was determined by the total number of 20-meter shuttles completed before voluntarily withdrawing from the test or failing to reach within 3 meters of the end line on two consecutive audio cues.
Ethical considerations
This study obtained ethical approval from the Faculty of Dental Medicine and Health Research at Airlangga University (No. 1420/HRECC.FODM/XII/2023). All procedures conducted in this study were in accordance with the principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki. Prior to participation, all students completed a basic pre-screening questionnaire and signed a written informed consent form.
Data analysis
Repeated-measures ANOVA was used to assess the effect of the intervention on strength and endurance over time. Differences between groups (CG vs. PG) in strength and endurance were analyzed using an independent t-test, while within-group differences (pre- vs. post-intervention) were analyzed using a paired t-test. Statistical significance was set at P<0.05. All statistical and graphical analyses were performed using SPSS ver. 21 (IBM, Armonk, NY, USA).
Results
Side effects and effectiveness of blinding
No adverse effect was reported by the participants during this study. All participants were unable to distinguish between the caffeinated and placebo chewing gums because of their similar color and smell, which suggested that the blinding process was effective. At baseline, there were no statistical differences between the PG and CG in terms of age, height, weight, and body mass index (BMI) (P>0.05), except body fat (Table 1).
The experimental gum was mocha-flavored and contained 15 mg of caffeine per piece. The placebo gum was identical in flavor and appearance but contained no caffeine. Participants were instructed to consume 12 pieces of gum (180 mg of caffeine, corresponding to 2.7±0.04 mg/kg body weight) for five minutes following the warm-up. Furthermore, chewing was timed by the researchers using a portable timer.
Strength and fitness test
Each participant provided a fingertip blood sample upon arrival. Random glucose, uric acid, and hemoglobin levels were measured using the Easy Touch GCU 3-in-1 device (MT Promedt Consulting GmBH, Germany) through a one-time blood sample (finger-prick) carried out by an enumerator. Handgrip strength was measured to the nearest 0.1 kg with a handgrip, back, and leg dynamometer (Takei Scientific Instruments Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan). Participants stood with their arms lowered to the sides and their feet shoulder-width apart. They were instructed to grip the bar with their second finger and hold the dynamometer with each hand, back, and leg as hard as they could. Both sides were evaluated twice, with the highest values used.
Multiple fitness test (MFT)
The 20-meter MFT required participants to run back and forth between two lines set 20 meters apart at a pace determined by audio signals at fixed intervals (Dimarucot and Macapagal, 2021). The initial velocity was 8.5 km·h-1, increasing by 0.5 km·h-1 each minute thereafter. The participant’s test score was determined by the total number of 20-meter shuttles completed before voluntarily withdrawing from the test or failing to reach within 3 meters of the end line on two consecutive audio cues.
Ethical considerations
This study obtained ethical approval from the Faculty of Dental Medicine and Health Research at Airlangga University (No. 1420/HRECC.FODM/XII/2023). All procedures conducted in this study were in accordance with the principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki. Prior to participation, all students completed a basic pre-screening questionnaire and signed a written informed consent form.
Data analysis
Repeated-measures ANOVA was used to assess the effect of the intervention on strength and endurance over time. Differences between groups (CG vs. PG) in strength and endurance were analyzed using an independent t-test, while within-group differences (pre- vs. post-intervention) were analyzed using a paired t-test. Statistical significance was set at P<0.05. All statistical and graphical analyses were performed using SPSS ver. 21 (IBM, Armonk, NY, USA).
Results
Side effects and effectiveness of blinding
No adverse effect was reported by the participants during this study. All participants were unable to distinguish between the caffeinated and placebo chewing gums because of their similar color and smell, which suggested that the blinding process was effective. At baseline, there were no statistical differences between the PG and CG in terms of age, height, weight, and body mass index (BMI) (P>0.05), except body fat (Table 1).
| Table 1. Baseline characteristics of study participants. | |||
| Variable | Placebo (n = 11) | Caffeine (n = 11) | P-valuea |
| Age (y) | 19.64 ± 1.03b | 19.55 ± 0.93 | 0.83 |
| Height (cm) | 165.27 ± 6.61 | 167.66 ± 5.57 | 0.37 |
| Weight (kg) | 65.39 ± 8.36 | 64.54 ± 7.56 | 0.804 |
| Body mass index (kg/m2) | 23.64 ± 2.46 | 22.91 ± 2.03 | 0.458 |
| Body fat (kg) | 19.08 ± 3.28 | 15.20 ± 3.50 | 0.014 |
| Visceral fat (kg) | 6.77 ± 2.31 | 6.00 ± 1.75 | 0.386 |
| Hemoglobin (g/dl) | 15.78 ± 1.53 | 15.36 ± 1.09 | 0.469 |
| Random glucose test (mg/dl) | 94.18 ± 9.13 | 95.73 ± 9.52 | 0.702 |
| Uric acid (mg/dl) | 7.85 ± 1.13 | 9.30 ± 2.94 | 0.138 |
| a: obtained from the independent t-test; b: Mean±SD. | |||
The effect of caffeinated chewing gum on strength and endurance
Strength tests in this study included right-hand grip, left-hand grip, leg dynamometer, and back dynamometer. Endurance was evaluated using the MFT by measuring VO2 max. Between-group analysis in the pre-intervention phase showed no differences in performance between the PG and CG in the strength tests, including right and left handgrip, leg and back dynamometer, and endurance, consisting of VO2 max (P>0.05). Similar results were observed post-intervention with no differences in strength and endurance (Table 2).
To evaluate the time (pre- and post-intervention) and intervention effect on strength and endurance, a repeated-measures ANOVA was conducted (Figures 2 and 3). The results showed that caffeinated chewing gum was not effective in improving right-hand grip, left-hand grip, back dynamometer, or leg dynamometer, but effectively increased VO2 max (PG: 1.45±2.44 ml/kg vs CG: 4.14±2.12 ml/kg; P<0.012). Moreover, data on individual delta performance between the PG and CG revealed the tendency for improvement in the CG compared to the PG across several measures, including right handgrip (6 individuals vs. 5 individuals), leg dynamometer (9 individuals vs. 7 individuals), back dynamometer (10 individuals vs. 9 individuals) (Figure 2), and VO2 max (11 individuals vs. 8 individuals) (Figure 3A). The recovery heart rate after the MFT test showed a significant decrease at each time point post-test. However, there were no differences in the recovery heart rate between groups (Figure 3B).
Strength tests in this study included right-hand grip, left-hand grip, leg dynamometer, and back dynamometer. Endurance was evaluated using the MFT by measuring VO2 max. Between-group analysis in the pre-intervention phase showed no differences in performance between the PG and CG in the strength tests, including right and left handgrip, leg and back dynamometer, and endurance, consisting of VO2 max (P>0.05). Similar results were observed post-intervention with no differences in strength and endurance (Table 2).
To evaluate the time (pre- and post-intervention) and intervention effect on strength and endurance, a repeated-measures ANOVA was conducted (Figures 2 and 3). The results showed that caffeinated chewing gum was not effective in improving right-hand grip, left-hand grip, back dynamometer, or leg dynamometer, but effectively increased VO2 max (PG: 1.45±2.44 ml/kg vs CG: 4.14±2.12 ml/kg; P<0.012). Moreover, data on individual delta performance between the PG and CG revealed the tendency for improvement in the CG compared to the PG across several measures, including right handgrip (6 individuals vs. 5 individuals), leg dynamometer (9 individuals vs. 7 individuals), back dynamometer (10 individuals vs. 9 individuals) (Figure 2), and VO2 max (11 individuals vs. 8 individuals) (Figure 3A). The recovery heart rate after the MFT test showed a significant decrease at each time point post-test. However, there were no differences in the recovery heart rate between groups (Figure 3B).
| Table 2. Performance test results between and within groups. | |||
| Variable | Placebo (n = 11) | Caffeine (n = 11) | P-valuea |
| Strength test | |||
| Right handgrip (kg) | |||
| Before | 38.58 ± 7.63c | 39.97 ± 5.37 | 0.628 |
| After | 37.95 ± 7.11 | 40.42 ± 6.85 | 0.414 |
| P-valueb | <0.001 | 0.006 | |
| Left handgrip (kg) | |||
| Before | 34.96 ± 6.78 | 37.45 ± 6.72 | 0.397 |
| After | 35.42 ± 8.03 | 37.93 ± 6.42 | 0.427 |
| P-value | <0.007 | <0.001 | |
| Leg dynamometer (kg) | |||
| Before | 79.84 ± 37.58 | 91.93 ± 23.38 | 0.376 |
| After | 111.45 ± 36.76 | 108.86 ± 19.25 | 0.839 |
| P-value | 0.016 | 0.146 | |
| Back dynamometer (kg) | |||
| Before | 82.79 ± 16.43 | 92.81 ± 18.74 | 0.197 |
| After | 91.91 ± 19.58 | 101.45 ± 23.17 | 0.309 |
| P-value | 0.001 | <0.001 | |
| Endurance test | |||
| VO2 max (mL/kg) | |||
| Before | 37.79 ± 5.59 | 37.85 ± 5.45 | 0.982 |
| After | 39.45 ± 5.87 | 41.98 ± 5.33 | 0.266 |
| P-value | <0.001 | <0.001 | |
| a: obtained from the independent t-test; b: Obtained from paired t-test; c: Mean±SD. | |||
Discussion
It was confirmed that the primary hypothesis that a caffeine dose of ~180 mg or ~3 mg/kg body weight in caffeinated chewing gum increased VO2 max among physically active individuals compared to placebo without affecting the post-exercise heart rate variability (HRV) (Figure 3A). However, VO2 max within groups showed no significant difference. Moreover, caffeinated chewing gum failed to significantly improve strength.
In contrast with a previous study, caffeine consumption did not significantly change VO2 max after a maximal incremental test (MIT) among nine healthy individuals (Brietzke et al., 2017). The study suggested that an increase in performance outcomes occurred without alterations in VO2 max, likely due to a reduced rating of perceived exertion (RPE) at maximal effort levels. In agreement with a previous randomized controlled trial, caffeine raised VO2 max in elite athletes, contributing to an improvement in high-intensity endurance performance (Stadheim et al., 2021). A meta-analysis of 32 studies revealed that a low dose of caffeine (100-300 mg or 2-4 mg/kg) in the form of chewing gum is rapidly absorbed and utilized, positively impacting most exercise and physiological performance (Yang et al., 2024). Similarly, a previous study showed an increased endurance among a study population due to the caffeine intake, with a sample-weighted VO2 max improvement of 3.83 ml/kg/min from an average baseline of 41.02 ml/kg/min to 44.85 ml/kg/min (Usman et al., 2017). Caffeine enhances VO2 max primarily by increasing blood flow to the heart and muscles during exercise, which allows for more efficient oxygen uptake and delivery (Brietzke et al., 2017).
This study evaluated the effect of pre-exercise after caffeinated chewing gum consumption. Post-exercise heart rate variability (HRV) was not significantly different between the placebo and caffeine groups. This finding aligns with a meta-analysis reporting that caffeine intake does not affect heart rate recovery after exercise. The safety of caffeine is estimated through cardiac autonomic control (Porto et al., 2022). The study showed increased and peaked HRV after exercise before tremendously reducing within a few minutes in both caffeine and placebo groups. The heart recovery rate between the placebo and caffeine groups was not significantly different. This suggests that caffeine consumption in this trial can maintain the cardiac autonomic control and is safe to use during exercise.
There are possible mechanisms through which caffeine consumption affects performance among individuals. After caffeine is ingested, a higher performance in time trials requires increased power production and is associated with higher heart rate and ventilation. The increased workload after caffeine consumption also elevates cardiac output and oxygen uptake. The active components of caffeine have a physiological impact by constraining the ability of the body to increase blood flow during exercise, which may promote efficient oxygen use (Usman et al., 2017). Caffeine improves performance, at least partly, by inhibiting adenosine receptor activity (Aguiar Jr et al., 2020). Adenosine receptors are expressed in tissues including the brain, muscles, heart, lungs, and blood vessels (Fredholm et al., 1999). Therefore, theoretically, caffeine-induced adenosine receptor inhibition can alter various physiological mechanisms contributing to improved endurance performance (Stadheim et al., 2021) .
The International Society for Sports Nutrition (ISSN), the International Olympic Committee (IOC), and the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) classify caffeine intake as low (<3 mg/kg), moderate (³ 3 mg/kg up to 6 mg/kg), and high (9 mg/kg) (Porto et al., 2022). Based on this classification, the caffeine used in this study (~ 3 mg/kg) was categorized as a low prescription dosage. The findings showed that the low dosage had no significant effect on strength among the participants. This dosage was prescribed considering its safety, and none of the adverse effects related to caffeine, such as anxiety, headaches, nausea, and restlessness, were reported during this trial. Overall, the consumption of caffeine can provide benefits in the VO2 max in active individuals. However, the effects of caffeine on VO2 max tend to be more inconsistent and are likely dependent on an individual’s tolerance levels and withdrawal durations from caffeine.
This study found that caffeinated chewing gum did not affect strength performance as measured by handgrip and dynamometer. In contrast, a meta-analysis discovered that caffeine consumption significantly increases isometric handgrip strength. Caffeine consumption in small doses (1–3 mg/kg) or moderate to high doses (5–7 mg/kg) was observed to have an ergogenic effect (Grgic, 2022). Harty et al. found that caffeine timing improved lower-body muscular performance (Harty et al., 2020). These results were contradicted by the findings of this study. According to Norum et al., the fundamental mechanism by which caffeine may promote maximal strength and power is likely related to enhanced motor unit recruitment and voluntary muscle activation of the relevant muscles (Norum et al., 2020).
While the study provides insightful information about aerobic capacity among the physically active population, it is crucial to recognize several limitations when interpreting the results. These limitations encompass concerns regarding the absence of long-term analysis and sample size due to financial constraints. Through pre-experimental standardization for each respondent, this study attempted to account for confounding variables. However, environmental factors could have impacted the results.
Conclusion
This study concluded that caffeine dose of ~180 mg or ~3 mg/kg body weight in chewing gum increased maximal oxygen uptake among physically active individuals while maintaining the cardiac autonomic control. However, the effect of caffeine was dependent on an individual’s tolerance level. Furthermore, caffeinated chewing gum did not affect strength among physically active students.
Acknowledgement
This article is one of the outputs of the competitive research scheme funded by the Research Center, Universitas Negeri Surabaya.
Authors’ contributions
Purnomo M, Rohmah Mayasari N, Yanuar Dini C, and Fathur Rohman M designed the research methods and interpreted the results. Rohmah Mayasari N performed the data analysis. Rohmah Mayasari N, Labib Siena Ar Rasyid M, and Yanuar Dini C drafted the paper and approved the submitted paper. Rohmah Mayasari N performed critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content.
Conflict of interest
The authors declared no conflicts of interest.
Funding
This study was supported by a grant number 309/UN38/HK/PP/2024 awarded to Mochamad Purnomo through the competitive research scheme of the Research Center, Universitas Negeri Surabaya.
Reference
Aguiar Jr AS, Speck AE, Canas PM & Cunha RA 2020. Neuronal adenosine A2A receptors signal ergogenic effects of caffeine. Scientific reports. 10 (1): 13414.
Bellar D, Judge LW & Craig BW 2011. Use of caffeinated chewing gum as an ergogenic aid. Strength & conditioning journal. 33 (4): 66-68.
Brietzke C, et al. 2017. Caffeine effects on VO2 max test outcomes investigated by a placebo perceived-as-caffeine design. Nutrition and Health. 23 (4): 231-238.
Dimarucot HC & Macapagal LS 2021. The validity and reliability of three field tests for assessing college freshmen students’ cardiovascular endurance. International journal of human movement and sports sciences. 9 (2): 363-374.
Farmani A, et al. 2024. The effect of repeated coffee mouth rinsing and caffeinated gum consumption on aerobic capacity and explosive power of table tennis players: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study. Journal of the international society of sports nutrition. 21 (1): 2340556.
Faul F, Erdfelder E, Buchner A & Lang A-G 2009. Statistical power analyses using G*Power 3.1: Tests for correlation and regression analyses. Behavior research methods. 41 (4): 1149-1160.
Fredholm BB, Bättig K, Holmén J, Nehlig A & Zvartau EE 1999. Actions of caffeine in the brain with special reference to factors that contribute to its widespread use. Pharmacological reviews. 51 (1): 83-133.
Grgic J 2022. Effects of caffeine on isometric handgrip strength: A meta-analysis. Clinical nutrition ESPEN. 47: 89-95.
Guest NS, et al. 2021. International society of sports nutrition position stand: caffeine and exercise performance. Journal of the international society of sports nutrition. 18 (1): 1.
Harty PS, et al. 2020. Caffeine timing improves lower-body muscular performance: A randomized trial. Frontiers in nutrition. 7: 585900.
Ma X, et al. 2023. VO2 max (VO2 peak) in elite athletes under high-intensity interval training: A meta-analysis. Heliyon. 9 (6): e16663.
Norum M, et al. 2020. Caffeine increases strength and power performance in resistance-trained females during early follicular phase. Scandinavian journal of medicine & science in sports. 30 (11): 2116-2129.
Porto AA, et al. 2022. Caffeine intake and its influences on heart rate variability recovery in healthy active adults after exercise: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrition, metabolism & cardiovascular diseases 32 (5): 1071-1082.
Srivastava S, et al. 2024. Assessment of maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 Max) in athletes and nonathletes assessed in sports physiology laboratory. Cureus. 16 (5): e61124.
Stadheim HK, Stensrud T, Brage S & Jensen J 2021. Caffeine increases exercise performance, maximal oxygen uptake, and oxygen deficit in elite male endurance athletes. Medicine & science in sports & exercise. 53 (11): 2264-2273.
Usman A, Arimbi A & Muriyati M 2017. The effect of caffeine on VO2 max athletes ability. International journal of sciences. 35 (3): 259-261.
van Der Zwaard S, Brocherie F & Jaspers RT 2021. Under the hood: skeletal muscle determinants of endurance performance. Frontiers in sports and active living. 3: 719434.
Vicente-Salar N, Fuster-Muñoz E & Martínez-Rodríguez A 2022. Nutritional ergogenic aids in combat sports: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrients. 14 (13): 2588.
Yang C-C, Hsieh M-H, Ho C-C, Chang Y-H & Shiu Y-J 2024. Effects of caffeinated chewing gum on exercise performance and physiological responses: A systematic review. Nutrients. 16 (21): 3611.
It was confirmed that the primary hypothesis that a caffeine dose of ~180 mg or ~3 mg/kg body weight in caffeinated chewing gum increased VO2 max among physically active individuals compared to placebo without affecting the post-exercise heart rate variability (HRV) (Figure 3A). However, VO2 max within groups showed no significant difference. Moreover, caffeinated chewing gum failed to significantly improve strength.
In contrast with a previous study, caffeine consumption did not significantly change VO2 max after a maximal incremental test (MIT) among nine healthy individuals (Brietzke et al., 2017). The study suggested that an increase in performance outcomes occurred without alterations in VO2 max, likely due to a reduced rating of perceived exertion (RPE) at maximal effort levels. In agreement with a previous randomized controlled trial, caffeine raised VO2 max in elite athletes, contributing to an improvement in high-intensity endurance performance (Stadheim et al., 2021). A meta-analysis of 32 studies revealed that a low dose of caffeine (100-300 mg or 2-4 mg/kg) in the form of chewing gum is rapidly absorbed and utilized, positively impacting most exercise and physiological performance (Yang et al., 2024). Similarly, a previous study showed an increased endurance among a study population due to the caffeine intake, with a sample-weighted VO2 max improvement of 3.83 ml/kg/min from an average baseline of 41.02 ml/kg/min to 44.85 ml/kg/min (Usman et al., 2017). Caffeine enhances VO2 max primarily by increasing blood flow to the heart and muscles during exercise, which allows for more efficient oxygen uptake and delivery (Brietzke et al., 2017).
This study evaluated the effect of pre-exercise after caffeinated chewing gum consumption. Post-exercise heart rate variability (HRV) was not significantly different between the placebo and caffeine groups. This finding aligns with a meta-analysis reporting that caffeine intake does not affect heart rate recovery after exercise. The safety of caffeine is estimated through cardiac autonomic control (Porto et al., 2022). The study showed increased and peaked HRV after exercise before tremendously reducing within a few minutes in both caffeine and placebo groups. The heart recovery rate between the placebo and caffeine groups was not significantly different. This suggests that caffeine consumption in this trial can maintain the cardiac autonomic control and is safe to use during exercise.
There are possible mechanisms through which caffeine consumption affects performance among individuals. After caffeine is ingested, a higher performance in time trials requires increased power production and is associated with higher heart rate and ventilation. The increased workload after caffeine consumption also elevates cardiac output and oxygen uptake. The active components of caffeine have a physiological impact by constraining the ability of the body to increase blood flow during exercise, which may promote efficient oxygen use (Usman et al., 2017). Caffeine improves performance, at least partly, by inhibiting adenosine receptor activity (Aguiar Jr et al., 2020). Adenosine receptors are expressed in tissues including the brain, muscles, heart, lungs, and blood vessels (Fredholm et al., 1999). Therefore, theoretically, caffeine-induced adenosine receptor inhibition can alter various physiological mechanisms contributing to improved endurance performance (Stadheim et al., 2021) .
The International Society for Sports Nutrition (ISSN), the International Olympic Committee (IOC), and the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) classify caffeine intake as low (<3 mg/kg), moderate (³ 3 mg/kg up to 6 mg/kg), and high (9 mg/kg) (Porto et al., 2022). Based on this classification, the caffeine used in this study (~ 3 mg/kg) was categorized as a low prescription dosage. The findings showed that the low dosage had no significant effect on strength among the participants. This dosage was prescribed considering its safety, and none of the adverse effects related to caffeine, such as anxiety, headaches, nausea, and restlessness, were reported during this trial. Overall, the consumption of caffeine can provide benefits in the VO2 max in active individuals. However, the effects of caffeine on VO2 max tend to be more inconsistent and are likely dependent on an individual’s tolerance levels and withdrawal durations from caffeine.
This study found that caffeinated chewing gum did not affect strength performance as measured by handgrip and dynamometer. In contrast, a meta-analysis discovered that caffeine consumption significantly increases isometric handgrip strength. Caffeine consumption in small doses (1–3 mg/kg) or moderate to high doses (5–7 mg/kg) was observed to have an ergogenic effect (Grgic, 2022). Harty et al. found that caffeine timing improved lower-body muscular performance (Harty et al., 2020). These results were contradicted by the findings of this study. According to Norum et al., the fundamental mechanism by which caffeine may promote maximal strength and power is likely related to enhanced motor unit recruitment and voluntary muscle activation of the relevant muscles (Norum et al., 2020).
While the study provides insightful information about aerobic capacity among the physically active population, it is crucial to recognize several limitations when interpreting the results. These limitations encompass concerns regarding the absence of long-term analysis and sample size due to financial constraints. Through pre-experimental standardization for each respondent, this study attempted to account for confounding variables. However, environmental factors could have impacted the results.
Conclusion
This study concluded that caffeine dose of ~180 mg or ~3 mg/kg body weight in chewing gum increased maximal oxygen uptake among physically active individuals while maintaining the cardiac autonomic control. However, the effect of caffeine was dependent on an individual’s tolerance level. Furthermore, caffeinated chewing gum did not affect strength among physically active students.
Acknowledgement
This article is one of the outputs of the competitive research scheme funded by the Research Center, Universitas Negeri Surabaya.
Authors’ contributions
Purnomo M, Rohmah Mayasari N, Yanuar Dini C, and Fathur Rohman M designed the research methods and interpreted the results. Rohmah Mayasari N performed the data analysis. Rohmah Mayasari N, Labib Siena Ar Rasyid M, and Yanuar Dini C drafted the paper and approved the submitted paper. Rohmah Mayasari N performed critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content.
Conflict of interest
The authors declared no conflicts of interest.
Funding
This study was supported by a grant number 309/UN38/HK/PP/2024 awarded to Mochamad Purnomo through the competitive research scheme of the Research Center, Universitas Negeri Surabaya.
Reference
Aguiar Jr AS, Speck AE, Canas PM & Cunha RA 2020. Neuronal adenosine A2A receptors signal ergogenic effects of caffeine. Scientific reports. 10 (1): 13414.
Bellar D, Judge LW & Craig BW 2011. Use of caffeinated chewing gum as an ergogenic aid. Strength & conditioning journal. 33 (4): 66-68.
Brietzke C, et al. 2017. Caffeine effects on VO2 max test outcomes investigated by a placebo perceived-as-caffeine design. Nutrition and Health. 23 (4): 231-238.
Dimarucot HC & Macapagal LS 2021. The validity and reliability of three field tests for assessing college freshmen students’ cardiovascular endurance. International journal of human movement and sports sciences. 9 (2): 363-374.
Farmani A, et al. 2024. The effect of repeated coffee mouth rinsing and caffeinated gum consumption on aerobic capacity and explosive power of table tennis players: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study. Journal of the international society of sports nutrition. 21 (1): 2340556.
Faul F, Erdfelder E, Buchner A & Lang A-G 2009. Statistical power analyses using G*Power 3.1: Tests for correlation and regression analyses. Behavior research methods. 41 (4): 1149-1160.
Fredholm BB, Bättig K, Holmén J, Nehlig A & Zvartau EE 1999. Actions of caffeine in the brain with special reference to factors that contribute to its widespread use. Pharmacological reviews. 51 (1): 83-133.
Grgic J 2022. Effects of caffeine on isometric handgrip strength: A meta-analysis. Clinical nutrition ESPEN. 47: 89-95.
Guest NS, et al. 2021. International society of sports nutrition position stand: caffeine and exercise performance. Journal of the international society of sports nutrition. 18 (1): 1.
Harty PS, et al. 2020. Caffeine timing improves lower-body muscular performance: A randomized trial. Frontiers in nutrition. 7: 585900.
Ma X, et al. 2023. VO2 max (VO2 peak) in elite athletes under high-intensity interval training: A meta-analysis. Heliyon. 9 (6): e16663.
Norum M, et al. 2020. Caffeine increases strength and power performance in resistance-trained females during early follicular phase. Scandinavian journal of medicine & science in sports. 30 (11): 2116-2129.
Porto AA, et al. 2022. Caffeine intake and its influences on heart rate variability recovery in healthy active adults after exercise: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrition, metabolism & cardiovascular diseases 32 (5): 1071-1082.
Srivastava S, et al. 2024. Assessment of maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 Max) in athletes and nonathletes assessed in sports physiology laboratory. Cureus. 16 (5): e61124.
Stadheim HK, Stensrud T, Brage S & Jensen J 2021. Caffeine increases exercise performance, maximal oxygen uptake, and oxygen deficit in elite male endurance athletes. Medicine & science in sports & exercise. 53 (11): 2264-2273.
Usman A, Arimbi A & Muriyati M 2017. The effect of caffeine on VO2 max athletes ability. International journal of sciences. 35 (3): 259-261.
van Der Zwaard S, Brocherie F & Jaspers RT 2021. Under the hood: skeletal muscle determinants of endurance performance. Frontiers in sports and active living. 3: 719434.
Vicente-Salar N, Fuster-Muñoz E & Martínez-Rodríguez A 2022. Nutritional ergogenic aids in combat sports: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrients. 14 (13): 2588.
Yang C-C, Hsieh M-H, Ho C-C, Chang Y-H & Shiu Y-J 2024. Effects of caffeinated chewing gum on exercise performance and physiological responses: A systematic review. Nutrients. 16 (21): 3611.
Type of article: orginal article |
Subject:
public specific
Received: 2025/05/22 | Published: 2026/05/30 | ePublished: 2026/05/30
Received: 2025/05/22 | Published: 2026/05/30 | ePublished: 2026/05/30
Send email to the article author
| Rights and permissions | |
 |
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. |
